11.13 ENERGY CONSERVATION

INTRODUCTION

Sutter County can reduce the effects of conventional energy shortages in the local communities by reducing its dependence on conventional energy resources. A successful program to reduce consumption of conventional energy resources and increase the use of renewable resources will not only reduce the disruptions to community life as a result of energy shortages, but can also contribute to state and federal efforts to promote energy conservation.

Options for reducing local energy consumption are presented for the major energy consuming uses. Energy required for space and water heating, lighting, industrial processes, and transportation can be greatly diminished by reducing wasteful energy consumption practices and habits. Other common approaches to energy conservation are recycling materials and converting waste into energy.

ENERGY CONSUMPTION PATTERNS

To facilitate the assessment of local energy consumption patterns, it is useful to determine the types and purposes of energy consumption in Sutter County. The relative importance of each type of energy use in the County is indicated in the paragraphs below through a discussion of the general trend in energy use identified for the residential, commercial, industrial, and agricultural sectors.

Residential

There are various factors that influence the type and amount of energy consumed in a residential structure. The most important are: 1) the type of dwelling units; 2) the size of the structure; 3) the number of occupants and their habits; 4) the weather conditions and time of year; 5) the thermal integrity of the building (level of insulation and number and location of windows); 6) the number of appliances (e.g., washing machine, clothes dryer, swimming pools, etc.); and 7) the type of appliances (e.g., gas versus electric heaters and ranges).

Typically, the most important factors influencing residential energy consumption are the type of house (detached single-family or multi-family structure) and the number of major appliances. A single-family home requires more energy for space heating than a multi-family unit, due to its bigger size and the amount of heat loss through external walls. It also requires more energy for operation of major appliances as it usually houses more occupants.

Some residential energy needs can be fulfilled by either gas or electricity (e.g., space and hot water heating, cooking, and clothes drying) while others are most likely dependent on electricity (lighting, radio, television, etc.). Space heating is by far the most energy consuming activity in residential structures. Even in moderate climates such as in California, space heating can account for more than one-third of residential energy consumption. Hot water heating is the second most energy consuming activity in a residence. In general, residential space and water heating consumes more natural gas than electricity (Table 11.13-1).

Commercial

Compared to residential uses, commercial activities consume more electricity than natural gas. Generally the major use of electricity for all commercial buildings is for lighting, with air-conditioning as the second highest use for most building types. Grocery stores and supermarkets are exceptions to this rule since their electrical usage is dominated by large refrigeration operations. The use of natural gas in commercial buildings is usually limited to space heating and occasionally air-conditioning.

Industrial

In contrast to energy consumption in the residential and commercial sectors, industrial patterns of energy consumption depend upon the specific type of industrial operations.

Energy use within the general category of "industrial processes" includes a number of specific uses. A significant portion of industrial gas use is for the purpose of heating water to various temperatures. The electricity portion of industrial process consumption includes a mixture of lighting, motor operation, and the operation of more sophisticated electronic equipment.

The major industrial activities in Sutter County are high electrical and natural gas users. In general, they use electricity for 60 percent of their energy needs and natural gas for the remaining 40 percent. Electricity is used to run motors, conveyor belts, chipping machines, and manufacturing equipment. Natural gas is consumed for space heating and some specific industrial processes.

In the stone and mineral extraction industry, electricity is used primarily for handling and crushing operations. Drying and additional processing require natural gas and/or fuel oils.

Agricultural

Electricity is important in the agricultural sector since it is the main source of energy used to operate irrigation pumps, fans, and wind producing machines used to protect fruits from winter frost. Natural gas use in the agricultural sector is less significant and is limited to the greenhouse industry, heating of agricultural buildings, and crop drying.

TABLE 11.13-1
NUMBER OF HOUSING UNITS AND TYPE OF ENERGY CONSUMED,
BY ENERGY NEED

Fuel Space Heating Water Heating Cooking

Utility Gas 15,180 (14,752) (6,849)

Bottled, tank, or LP gas 1,247 (1,323) (1,016)

Electricity 4,782 (2,690) (10,923)

Fuel Oil, kerosene, etc. 90 -- --

Coal or Coke -- -- --

Wood 1,761 -- --

Solar Energy -- -- --

Other fuel 47 (30) (8)

No fuel used 34 (10) (13)

Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Census, 1990 & (1980). Census of Housing. Detailed Housing Characteristics. California.

CONSERVATION MEASURES

A reduction in the use of natural gas and conventional electricity supplies can be accomplished by reducing wasteful energy consumption practices and habits. Typically, houses built prior to the 1970's during the time of inexpensive energy have minimal insulation and weatherstripping, and do not reflect a relationship to the climate characteristics of the building site. The primary economic concern at the time of construction was to keep the initial cost of the building and equipment as low as possible. Electrical lights were used in places where windows could have provided much of the lighting needed. Major appliances were designed with little insulation and no energy efficiency concern. Residential furnaces were often oversized in capacity for the heating requirements of the structure.

Environmental and cost concerns tend to provide greater incentives to save energy. There are many options for improving energy efficiency of buildings and equipment. Most of these options are neither new nor highly technical. Although understood for years, they were not economic options given the cost of energy resources at the time. Some measures cause moderate cost increases for a building or appliance; others are merely different ways of designing facilities or using energy and cost no more than the conventional approach.

Title 24 of the California Administrative Code contains provisions for energy conservation in new residences. These provisions are currently enforced by the Building Inspection Program, and create energy savings of approximately 50 percent over residential construction practices used prior to their enactment. It should be noted that failures to build certain efficiencies into the design of long-lived buildings and appliances are often irreversible for the lifetime of the items in question. With refrigerators and furnaces now lasting 20 years or more, and building lifetimes measured in one or one half centuries, decisions to forgo savings are made not just for us, but for our children and grandchildren as well.

Implementation of energy conservation measures during construction of new homes is easier and more cost effective than improving the energy efficiency of existing homes. However, since today's existing building stock is responsible for the major bulk of energy consumption, it is imperative to encourage energy conservation measures in existing structures. Options for reducing local energy use in old and new buildings are discussed below in terms of the energy uses of space heating, water heating, lighting systems, appliances, industrial processes, plumbing, and transportation and land use.

Space Heating

The efficiency with which a structure can be heated and cooled depends on a number of factors, including the type of energy used, orientation and construction of the building, amount of insulation in the building, type of heating and cooling equipment used, and habits of the building's occupants.

Electrical heating appliances are more efficient at the point of use than are natural gas appliances. However, the considerable amount of primary energy required to generate and distribute electricity results in a very inefficient use of this energy form. There are substantial energy losses in the conversion process, particularly in a fossil fuel power plant and in the transmission of electricity to the buildings where it is used. Small energy losses occur in the transport of natural gas from its source to the final place of consumption and, overall, natural gas presents a much higher efficiency than electricity. On the whole, gas space heating is 60-75 percent efficient, compared to electric space heating efficiencies of 30-40 percent. Title 24 contains provisions discouraging the use of electric space heating in new buildings.

Whether equipped with gas or electricity, there are many opportunities for increasing the efficiency of space heating and cooling. The type of unit built and its orientation, size, and volume contribute to the resulting energy requirement of the building. Generally, buildings which share common walls, such as multi-family and some commercial units, use significantly less energy than detached structures. Common walls reduce the outside surface-to-volume ratio of each unit, so there is less surface area through which heat can pass. Building orientation is also an important factor in determining the amount of energy required for space heating and cooling. Buildings oriented in a north-south direction can take maximum advantage of solar radiation and therefore reduce heating energy needs. In addition, adequate landscaping, providing shading in summer and solar access in winter, can maximize the use of solar designs in space heating and cooling.

The resistance of a wall, ceiling, or floor to heat flow, known as the "R-value", is directly related to the extent of insulation. The greater the "R" value of an insulating material, the greater resistance it has to heat flow. A well-insulated house will have a minimum of R-11 insulation in the walls and R-19 in the ceiling. Under-insulated homes have ceiling insulation rated at less than R-19, typically R-7 or R-11. Improvement of the insulation level of existing houses or apartments, an operation known as retrofitting, can substantially reduce the energy required for space heating. It is estimated that adding R-19 ceiling insulation to an uninsulated residence can save between 20 to 30 percent of the energy necessary for heating.

Windows and exterior doors are major sources of heat losses in a building. Adequate weatherstripping for doors and windows can help reduce air leaks and consequently reduce the heating requirements of a structure. The use of thermopane windows can also contribute to a reduction in energy consumption and can prove to be cost effective.

In addition to the above mentioned energy conservation measures requiring physical changes in a structure or its site, energy savings are achievable if the building occupants are willing to make some behavioral changes. Setting back the thermostat at night can reduce furnace energy use. Shutting off the pilot light on a residential furnace during the warm seasons can reduce annual furnace energy use. Lowering the winter thermostat temperature setting and raising the summer setting reduces the rate at which heat flows in and out of a structure.

Even though most of the energy conservation options discussed above are directed primarily at reducing heating loads, these same measures will often reduce cooling loads as well.

Title 24 establishes required levels of thermal performance for new residential and non-residential buildings. The standards include insulation requirements for ceilings, walls, and floors and weatherstripping requirements for all exterior doors and windows.

Water Heating

Inefficient energy use for water heating results from the use of electric resistance water heaters, little or no insulation around the water heater tank, maintenance of water at a higher temperature than needed, and wasteful use of hot water.

As with space heating, electricity is much less efficient than gas for heating water. Another major source of inefficient thermal performance is the lack of adequate insulation around the hot water tank. Installation of a tank insulation jacket (a layer of R-6 insulation) around the tank's exterior can substantially reduce annual energy requirements for heating water. Reducing the thermostat setting on a typical heater by 10°F and adding shower and faucet flow restrictors can cause additional energy savings. Flow restrictors save energy by reducing the amount of hot water used and the amount of energy required for water pumping.

Title 24 standards for new residential and non-residential buildings set a number of requirements for water heating. The use of electric resistance water heating is discouraged due to its inefficient use of energy. Performance standards are set for all plumbing fixtures to limit water flow, and insulation is required for water pipes that traverse unheated spaces.

Lighting Systems

Typically, the largest single commercial use of energy is for lighting. Lighting is also an important use of energy in the residential sector. Lighting systems, particularly in commercial buildings, tend to uniformly light the interior space. Often the activities occurring do not require the same level of lighting throughout the building, therefore, considerable energy is wasted by unnecessary light fixtures. Additional energy is wasted because lighting adds heat to the building interior, requiring air conditioning equipment to operate longer.

In existing buildings, these inefficient lighting systems can be replaced with more efficient task-oriented lighting which selectively illuminates activity areas. Other options for reducing the energy requirements of lighting include: disconnecting unnecessary light fixtures (delamping) and replacing incandescent lights with more energy efficient fluorescent or sodium-vapor lighting (relamping). It is estimated that lighting energy savings of 25-50 percent are possible by employing these conservation options.

Title 24 Building Codes include illumination efficiency standards for new non-residential building interiors. The standards are based upon the type of activities carried out within a structure.

Appliances

There are a number of voluntary options for reducing energy use by existing appliances. Most of these are aimed at reducing the duration and frequency of appliance use. The more significant options for space and heating appliances have already been described (i.e., setting back thermostats). Utility companies also recommend the following measures to residential customers:

Check the seals around the door edges of refrigerators and freezers and make sure they are in good condition. Keep the condenser clean so that it can operate most efficiently. Keep manual units as frost-free as possible.

Skip the drying cycle and prop dishwasher doors open to air dry dishes. Wash only full loads. Use short-wash cycles as much as possible.

Use cold water in clothes washers whenever possible. Wash full loads only. Use a clothesline instead of a dryer.

Clean filters regularly in furnaces and heaters. Maintain heater outlets and air intakes in a clean condition.

Avoid preheating oven. Do not use small pans on large cooking elements. Cover pots and pans as much as possible.

Like buildings, appliances were designed to reduce manufacturing costs and be fairly durable. Now that energy costs have made operation of appliances more expensive, there is sufficient reason to design and use equipment which is more energy efficient.

In order to prevent the continued manufacturing of energy inefficient appliances, California has adopted energy efficiency standards for new appliances (known as Title 20) which require significant energy consumption. At present, standards have been adopted for the following appliances: electric refrigerators, freezers and combined units, gas space heaters, water heaters, plumbing fittings, gas clothes dryers, gas cooking appliances, and air conditioners.

These standards apply to new appliances retailed in California, regardless of where they are manufactured. Typically, the standard for each appliance is stated as a required measure of operation efficiency. Most of the standards include two or more implementing phases, so that manufacturers will have sufficient time to make the necessary design and production changes and to clear present stock inventories. Following each phase deadline, an appliance cannot be sold in California unless it has been tested and certified as complying with the standards.

Industrial Processes

A large potential exists for improving the energy efficiency of industrial operations. However, as with non-residential buildings, the diversity among industries means that no single conservation measure is broadly applicable. Conservation measures must be identified on a plant-by-plant basis. Some of the general options for achieving industrial energy conservation are summarized below. Monitoring of industrial processes can lead to improvements in energy efficiency. Changes in the timing of processing operations or in the monitoring practices themselves can result in substantial energy savings. Maintaining optimal boiler efficiencies by monitoring flue gases and adjusting boiler equipment is one example. The use of automatic timing devices on equipment which is used only intermittently is another option.

Modifying industrial equipment to improve its energy efficiency generally requires substantial investment, but the energy and dollar savings can be significant. Installing equipment to recover and use waste heat given off by process hot water, steam, and other heat sources to generate electricity (cogeneration) is already successfully in use in the County.

New processes coming into use for a number of industries will significantly decrease the energy requirements of new plants and equipment. In the design of new plants and processes, there are often capital or labor-intensive alternatives available which will save energy compared to the more economic options. With today's increasing energy prices, these energy conserving alternatives are becoming more economic as the energy cost savings potential begins to offset the added capital costs.

Pumping

Water pumping is conducted mainly through the use of electricity. Most of this end use is attributable to pumping water to irrigate crops. State programs are available for the peak load of electrical energy used for agricultural water pumping. Further study of using time-of-way pricing to promote crop irrigation during off peak, night time hours could be appropriate. The energy efficiency of all pumping can be improved with adjustments to, and maintenance of, pumping equipment.

Transportation and Land Use Planning

Conventional land use development patterns have tended to be energy inefficient. The cause and effect relationships between land use patterns and energy consumption are not completely understood, but the following development trends appear to be associated with greater energy consumption:

Suburban residential development located far from employment, commercial, and transit routes require greater dependence on the automobile;

Development of outlying areas makes the provision of transit and other public services more costly and less efficient; and

Low density land use plans that provide low density, detached development requires more energy for use in space heating and cooling compared to higher density units with common walls.

The increased energy consumption associated with these development patterns contribute to increased air pollution and other environmental problems. The relationships between energy consumption, land use planning, and air quality have been determined in the past years, and are reflected in documents such as Air Quality Attainment Plans.

11.14 FINDINGS

Local energy needs can likely be met over the short-term (5-10 years) without new sources of energy development.

New transmission line and substation development is not necessary in the short-term to serve expected growth.

The primary considerations for the siting of new cogeneration facilities is fuel availability and the access to existing transmission lines.

Air quality issues pose significant regulatory and environmental constraints to the development of new cogeneration and waste to energy facilities.

The availability of low-cost, environmentally safe fuel for waste to energy plants will likely drive the future development of these facilities.

Hydroelectric energy projects are not feasible in the County.

Oil and coal energy resources are not known to exist in the County.

The County has extensive natural gas resources. Continued production is likely.

Building orientation and incorporation of energy conservation measures used during construction of new buildings will reduce energy use.

11.15 PERSONS CONSULTED

Bartolome, Art, Service Planning Supervisor. Pacific Gas & Electric

Cambel, Tony, Engineering and Maintenance Manager. Sunsweet

Horne, Mike, Plant Superintendent. Greenleaf Cogeneration

Kercheval, Melody, Planning Analyst. Pacific Gas & Electric

Torkelson, Jim, Senior New Business Representative. Pacific Gas & Electric

White, Lorane, Planning Division of the California Energy Commission

11.16 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Association of Bay Area Governments. Small But Powerful, A review Guide to small Alternative Energy Projects, September 1987.

Butte County. Draft General Plan Background Report, March 1993.

California Energy Commission. California Power Plant Maps, July 1992.

California Energy Commission. Electricity Report, P106-90-002, October 1990.

California Energy Commission. Energy Development Report, P500-90-008 July 1990.

California Energy Commission. Energy Efficiency Report, P400-90-003, October 1990.

Pacific Gas and Electric Company. Cogeneration and Small Power Production Quarterly Report, Second Quarter 1993.

Pacific Gas and Electric Company. Small Power Production Quarterly Report, Second Quarter, 1995.